HAVIGHURST'S THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Another Psychologist
that further elaborated on Erickson's view on personality development
was Robert. J Havighurst. He asserted that "Erickson's analysis of
stages of development could be applied in a different way to shed light
on other facets of development. He suggested some development tasks for
different age levels, starting from the pre-school and kindergarten age.
pre-school/kindergarten age: According to Havighurst, this age ushers
in an era of formation of simple concepts of societal and physical
reality. It is a familiarity seeking stage with the social surroundings
including every day objects. Children are curious at this stage asking
questions. The questions if answered expose them to experiences they
hitherto do not have. The child would want to relate emotionally with
his parents, siblings and other people around mostly through imitation.
He would like to distinguish right from wrong and develop a conscience.
The tasks appear to be incompatible with the age whose accomplishment
would be difficult. The personality of children at this age is just
beginning to take shape, and assuming that children are in a position to
undertake these developmental tasks will amount to impossibilities.
However, teachers are expected to serve as desirable role models and
expose children to many objects and experiences. They should patiently
answer their curious questions.
Elementary Grade: Nine (9)
developmental tasks have been identified for this age grade. They
include learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games; building
wholesome attitudes towards oneself as a growing organism; learning to
get along with age mates; learning appropriate masculine or feminine
roles; development of fundamental skills in reading, writing and
calculations. Others are developing concepts necessary for everyday
living; developing conscience, morality and scale of values; achieving
personal independence and developing attitudes towards social group and
institutions.
Teachers have a stake in ensuring that children
emerge from these Herculean development tasks successfully. They must
bring to bear all the teaching principles and methods in the
teaching/learning situations. They should emphasize socially acceptable
behaviors, health and eating values to their students. They should make
effort at seeping and integrating curriculum materials and experiences
that would lead to the accomplishment of masculine and feminine tasks.
Secondary grades: At the secondary grade, nine (9) developmental tasks
have been similarly identified by Havighurst, which are related mostly
to adolescents and adult behaviors. The list comprises of :
Achieving new and mature relations with age mates of both sexes;
Achieving masculine or feminine social role;
Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively;
Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults;
Achieving assurance of economic independence and selecting and preparing for occupation;
Preparing for marriage and family life;
Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence;
Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior; and
Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior.
Havighurst emphasized the importance of timing and teachable moments
in addressing issues related to the achievement of the developmental
tasks, failing which there would be an adverse repercussion in later
aspects of development. These issues have also been discussed under
psychology of adolescence.
FACTORS AFFECTING PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Based on the general assumption that personality refers to the
peculiar thinking of the individual, his emotions and behaviors in
adapting to the world, some psychologists proposed five major factors
that make it up. These include emotional stability, extraversion and
openness to experience. The other two are agreeableness and
conscientiousness.. Apart from these major factors, however, there are
other equally important ones such as how positive or negative and how
self assertive a student can be. By positive and negative, they mean how
joyous or happy and how angry or sad a student is respectively.
EMOTIONAL STABILITY
The emotional stability of an individual affects his personality by
determining whether he is calm or anxious in his approaches. It also
tells whether he considers himself as secure to perform or insecure to
participate in activities. And whether he is self satisfied with his
tasks or is self pitying is also indicated by his emotional stability.
EXTRAVERSION
This factor is responsible for indicating whether the student is
sociable or retiring and whether he is run-loving or usually somber. It
also shows how affectionate or reserved one is in his association with
others or during events.
OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE
The
student's imaginative power or his practicability is known by his
openness to the relevant experience. It indicates whether he is more
interest6ed in variety or in routine and whether he is more independent
in his dealings or simply conforming to others instructions and
suggestions.
Agreeableness
It matters a lot to determine
whether the student is softhearted or ruthless in his dealings with
others. Is he a trusting type or generally a suspicious person? We need
to know his position when it comes to whether he is helpful or
uncooperative in his behavior.
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
Lastly,
the factor of conscientiousness affects the personality of an
individual by helping to determine whether he is usually organized,
careful or careless. It also suggests whether he is a disciplined
individual or is normally given to impulsive behavior.
PERSON - SITUATION INTERACTION
In relation to factors that affect the personality of our students, it
is noteworthy however that the description of the personality of each
of them is not strictly speaking a straight jacket affair. The situation
in which the subjects find themselves must get put into consideration
before conclusion is drawn to label them according to the traits
enumerated in the factors that affect their personality. This is because
their interactions may vary from one situation to another. Therefore,
it is for the teacher to observe the situations that are more
comfortable to their respective students, to provide cognate learning
activities for them.
Monday 25 March 2013
Sigmund Freud`s Theory
Sigmund Freud was born on 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis.
Freud qualified as a Doctor of Medicine at the University of Vienna in 1881, and then carried out research into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy at the Vienna General Hospital. He was appointed a University lecturer in neuropathology in 1885 and became a Professor in 1902.
In creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst,[1] Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association (in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and in whichever order they spontaneously occur) and discovered transference (the process in which patients displace on to their analysts feelings derived from the sexual experiences and fantasies of their childhood), establishing its central role in the analytic process. Freud’s analysis of his own and his patients dreams as wish-fulfilments provided him with models for the clinical analysis of symptom formation and the mechanisms of repression as well as for further elaboration of his theory of the unconscious as an agency disruptive of conscious states of mind.[2] Freud postulated the existence of libido, an energy with which mental process and structures are invested and which generates erotic attachments, and a death drive, the source of repetition, hate, aggression and guilt.[3] In his later work Freud drew on psychoanalytic theory to develop a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture.
Psychoanalysis remains influential within psychiatry and across the humanities. As such it continues to generate extensive debate, notably over its scientific status and as to whether it advances or is detrimental to the feminist cause.[4] Regardless of the scientific content of his theories, Freud's work has suffused intellectual thought and popular culture to the extent that in 1939 W. H. Auden wrote, in a poem dedicated to him: "to us he is no more a person / now but a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives".[5]
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed his ideas about psychoanalytic theory from work with mental patients. He was a medical doctor who specialized in neurology. He spent most of his years in Vienna, though he moved to London near the end of his career because of the Nazis’ anti-Semitism.
Freud believed that personality has three structures: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the Freudian structure of personality that consists of instincts, which are an individual’s reservoir of psychic energy. In Freud’s view, the id is totally unconscious; it has no contact with reality. As children experience the demands and constraints of reality, a new structure of personality emerges- the ego, the Freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality. The ego is called the executive branch of personality because it uses reasoning to make decisions. The id and the ego have no morality. They do not take into account whether something is right or wrong. The superego is the Freudian structure of personality that is the moral branch of personality. The superego takes into account whether something is right or wrong. Think of the superego as what we often refer to as our “conscience.” You probably are beginning to sense that both the id and the superego make life rough for the ego. Your ego might say, “I will have sex only occasionally and be sure to take the proper precautions because I don’t want the intrusion of a child in the development of my career.” However, your id is saying, “I want to be satisfied; sex is pleasurable.” Your superego is at work, too: “I feel guilty about having sex before I’m married.”
Remember that Freud considered personality to be like an iceberg; most of personality exists below our level of awareness, just as the massive part of an iceberg is beneath the surface of the water. Freud believed that most of the important personality processes occur below the level of conscious awareness. In examining people’s conscious thoughts about their behaviors, we can see some reflections of the ego and the superego. Whereas the ego and superego are partly conscious and partly unconscious, the primitive id is the unconscious, the totally submerged part of the iceberg.
How does the ego resolve the conflict among its demands for reality, the wishes of the id, and constraints of the superego? Through defense mechanisms, the psychoanalytic term for unconscious methods the ego uses to distort reality, thereby protecting it from anxiety. In Freud’s view, the conflicting demands of the personality structures produce anxiety. For example, when the ego blocks the pleasurable pursuits of the id, inner anxiety is felt. This diffuse, distressed state develops when the ego senses that the id is going to cause harm to the individual. The anxiety alerts the ego to resolve the conflict by means of defense mechanisms.
Repression is the most powerful and pervasive defense mechanism, according to Freud; it works to push unacceptable id impulses out of awareness and back into the unconscious mind. Repression is the foundation from which all other defense mechanisms work; the goal of every defense mechanism is to repress, or push threatening impulses out of awareness. Freud said that our early childhood experiences, many of which he believed are sexually laden, are too threatening and stressful for us to deal with consciously. We reduce the anxiety of this conflict through the defense mechanism of repression.
Freud qualified as a Doctor of Medicine at the University of Vienna in 1881, and then carried out research into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy at the Vienna General Hospital. He was appointed a University lecturer in neuropathology in 1885 and became a Professor in 1902.
In creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst,[1] Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association (in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and in whichever order they spontaneously occur) and discovered transference (the process in which patients displace on to their analysts feelings derived from the sexual experiences and fantasies of their childhood), establishing its central role in the analytic process. Freud’s analysis of his own and his patients dreams as wish-fulfilments provided him with models for the clinical analysis of symptom formation and the mechanisms of repression as well as for further elaboration of his theory of the unconscious as an agency disruptive of conscious states of mind.[2] Freud postulated the existence of libido, an energy with which mental process and structures are invested and which generates erotic attachments, and a death drive, the source of repetition, hate, aggression and guilt.[3] In his later work Freud drew on psychoanalytic theory to develop a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture.
Psychoanalysis remains influential within psychiatry and across the humanities. As such it continues to generate extensive debate, notably over its scientific status and as to whether it advances or is detrimental to the feminist cause.[4] Regardless of the scientific content of his theories, Freud's work has suffused intellectual thought and popular culture to the extent that in 1939 W. H. Auden wrote, in a poem dedicated to him: "to us he is no more a person / now but a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives".[5]
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed his ideas about psychoanalytic theory from work with mental patients. He was a medical doctor who specialized in neurology. He spent most of his years in Vienna, though he moved to London near the end of his career because of the Nazis’ anti-Semitism.
Freud believed that personality has three structures: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the Freudian structure of personality that consists of instincts, which are an individual’s reservoir of psychic energy. In Freud’s view, the id is totally unconscious; it has no contact with reality. As children experience the demands and constraints of reality, a new structure of personality emerges- the ego, the Freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality. The ego is called the executive branch of personality because it uses reasoning to make decisions. The id and the ego have no morality. They do not take into account whether something is right or wrong. The superego is the Freudian structure of personality that is the moral branch of personality. The superego takes into account whether something is right or wrong. Think of the superego as what we often refer to as our “conscience.” You probably are beginning to sense that both the id and the superego make life rough for the ego. Your ego might say, “I will have sex only occasionally and be sure to take the proper precautions because I don’t want the intrusion of a child in the development of my career.” However, your id is saying, “I want to be satisfied; sex is pleasurable.” Your superego is at work, too: “I feel guilty about having sex before I’m married.”
Remember that Freud considered personality to be like an iceberg; most of personality exists below our level of awareness, just as the massive part of an iceberg is beneath the surface of the water. Freud believed that most of the important personality processes occur below the level of conscious awareness. In examining people’s conscious thoughts about their behaviors, we can see some reflections of the ego and the superego. Whereas the ego and superego are partly conscious and partly unconscious, the primitive id is the unconscious, the totally submerged part of the iceberg.
How does the ego resolve the conflict among its demands for reality, the wishes of the id, and constraints of the superego? Through defense mechanisms, the psychoanalytic term for unconscious methods the ego uses to distort reality, thereby protecting it from anxiety. In Freud’s view, the conflicting demands of the personality structures produce anxiety. For example, when the ego blocks the pleasurable pursuits of the id, inner anxiety is felt. This diffuse, distressed state develops when the ego senses that the id is going to cause harm to the individual. The anxiety alerts the ego to resolve the conflict by means of defense mechanisms.
Repression is the most powerful and pervasive defense mechanism, according to Freud; it works to push unacceptable id impulses out of awareness and back into the unconscious mind. Repression is the foundation from which all other defense mechanisms work; the goal of every defense mechanism is to repress, or push threatening impulses out of awareness. Freud said that our early childhood experiences, many of which he believed are sexually laden, are too threatening and stressful for us to deal with consciously. We reduce the anxiety of this conflict through the defense mechanism of repression.
Jean Piaget`s Theory
Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980) was employed
at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French
versions of questions on English intelligence tests.
He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers on the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.
Piaget was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a theory of cognitive child development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults. According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based.
Piaget's Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and enviromental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.
There Are Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive Theory:
When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e. a state of cognitive (i.e. mental) balance.
Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development, and described how they were developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations. The assumption is that we store these mental representations and apply them when needed.
For example, a person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a stored form of the pattern of behavior which includes looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and paying the bill. This is an example of a type of schema called a 'script'.
Whenever they are in a restaurant, they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation. The schemas Piaget described tend to be simpler than this - especially those used by infants. He described how - as a child gets older - his or her schemas become more numerous and elaborate.
The illustration (above) demonstrates a child developing a schema for a dog by assimilating information about the dog. The child then sees a cat, using accommodation compares existing knowledge of a dog to form a schema of a cat. Animation created by Daurice Grossniklaus and Bob Rodes (03/2002).
Piaget believed that newborn babies have some innate schemas -
even before they have had much opportunity to experience the
world. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures
underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes are genetically
programmed into us.
For example babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby's lips. A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. Piaget therefore assumed that the baby has a 'sucking schema'. Similarly the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm of a baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something which touches its cheek, were assumed to result operations: for example shaking a rattle would be the combination of two schemas, grasping and shaking.
With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”.
Imagine what it would be like if you did not have a mental model of your world. It would mean that you would not be able to make so much use of information from your past experience, or to plan future actions.
Jean Piaget was interested both in how children learnt and in how they thought.
Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence, and carried out many of his own investigations using his three children. He used the following research methods:
Naturalistic observation: Piaget made careful, detailed observations of children. These were mainly his own children and the children of friends. From these he wrote diary descriptions charting their development.
Clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand questions and hold conversations.
Piaget believed that children think differently than adults and stated they go through 4 universal stages of cognitive development. Development is therefore biologically based and changes as the child matures. Cognition therefore develops in all children in the same sequence of stages.
Each child goes through the stages in the same order, and no stage can be missed out - although some individuals may never attain the later stages. There are individual differences in the rate at which children progress through stages.
Piaget did not claim that a particular stage was reached at a certain age - although descriptions of the stages often include an indication of the age at which the average child would reach each stage. Piaget believed that these stages are universal - i.e. that the same sequence of development occurs in children all over the world, whatever their culture.
Piaget has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching. For example, a review of primary education by the UK government in 1966 was based strongly on Piaget’s theory. The result of this review led to the publication of the Plowden report (1967).
Discovery learning – the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring - was seen as central to the transformation of primary school curriculum.
Because Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages the notion of 'readiness' important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught. According to Piaget's theory children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage cognitive development.
Within the classroom learning should be student centred a accomplished through active discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition. Therefore teachers should encourage the following within the classroom:
He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers on the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.
Piaget was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a theory of cognitive child development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults. According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based.
o It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.
o It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information or specific behaviors.
o It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and enviromental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.
There Are Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive Theory:
- Schemas (building blocks of knowledge)
- Processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (equilibrium,
assimilation
and accommodation)
- Stages of Development:
- sensorimotor,
- preoperational,
- concrete operational,
- formal operational
Schemas
Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions and abstract (i.e. theoretical) concepts.When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e. a state of cognitive (i.e. mental) balance.
Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development, and described how they were developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations. The assumption is that we store these mental representations and apply them when needed.
For example, a person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a stored form of the pattern of behavior which includes looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and paying the bill. This is an example of a type of schema called a 'script'.
Whenever they are in a restaurant, they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation. The schemas Piaget described tend to be simpler than this - especially those used by infants. He described how - as a child gets older - his or her schemas become more numerous and elaborate.
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The illustration (above) demonstrates a child developing a schema for a dog by assimilating information about the dog. The child then sees a cat, using accommodation compares existing knowledge of a dog to form a schema of a cat. Animation created by Daurice Grossniklaus and Bob Rodes (03/2002).
For example babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby's lips. A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. Piaget therefore assumed that the baby has a 'sucking schema'. Similarly the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm of a baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something which touches its cheek, were assumed to result operations: for example shaking a rattle would be the combination of two schemas, grasping and shaking.
Assimilation and Accommodation
Jean Piaget viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through:Assimilation
– Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
Accommodation
– This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
Equilibration
– This is the force, which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibrium is occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).
Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it.
Example of Assimilation
A 2 year old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown” (Sigler et al., 2003).Example of Accommodation
In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laughWith this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”.
Stages of Development
A child's cognitive development is about a child developing or constructing a mental model of the world.Imagine what it would be like if you did not have a mental model of your world. It would mean that you would not be able to make so much use of information from your past experience, or to plan future actions.
Jean Piaget was interested both in how children learnt and in how they thought.
Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence, and carried out many of his own investigations using his three children. He used the following research methods:
Naturalistic observation: Piaget made careful, detailed observations of children. These were mainly his own children and the children of friends. From these he wrote diary descriptions charting their development.
Clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand questions and hold conversations.
Piaget believed that children think differently than adults and stated they go through 4 universal stages of cognitive development. Development is therefore biologically based and changes as the child matures. Cognition therefore develops in all children in the same sequence of stages.
Each child goes through the stages in the same order, and no stage can be missed out - although some individuals may never attain the later stages. There are individual differences in the rate at which children progress through stages.
Piaget did not claim that a particular stage was reached at a certain age - although descriptions of the stages often include an indication of the age at which the average child would reach each stage. Piaget believed that these stages are universal - i.e. that the same sequence of development occurs in children all over the world, whatever their culture.
| Cognitive Stage of Development | Key Feature | Research Study |
|---|---|---|
|
Sensorimotor 0 - 2 yrs. |
Object Permanence | Blanket & Ball Study |
|
Preoperational 2 - 7 yrs. |
Egocentrism | Three Mountains |
|
Concrete
Operational 7 – 11 yrs. |
Conservation | Conservation of Number |
|
Formal
Operational 11yrs + |
Manipulate ideas in head, e.g. Abstract Reasoning | Pendulum Task |
Educational Implications
Piaget did not explicitly relate his theory to education, although later researchers have explained how features of Piaget's theory can be applied to teaching and learning.Piaget has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching. For example, a review of primary education by the UK government in 1966 was based strongly on Piaget’s theory. The result of this review led to the publication of the Plowden report (1967).
Discovery learning – the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring - was seen as central to the transformation of primary school curriculum.
'The report's recurring themes are individual learning, flexibility in the curriculum, the centrality of play in children's learning, the use of the environment, learning by discovery and the importance of the evaluation of children's progress - teachers should 'not assume that only what is measurable is valuable.'
Because Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages the notion of 'readiness' important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught. According to Piaget's theory children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage cognitive development.
Within the classroom learning should be student centred a accomplished through active discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition. Therefore teachers should encourage the following within the classroom:
o Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it. o Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths".
o Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other).
o Devising situations that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium in the child.
o Evaluate the level of the child's development, so suitable tasks can be set.
Evaluation of Piaget's Theory
Strengths
- The influence of Piaget’s ideas in developmental
psychology has been enormous. He changed how people viewed the child’s
world and their methods of studying children. He was an inspiration to
many who came after and took up his ideas. Piaget's ideas have
generated a huge amount of research which has increased our
understanding of cognitive development.
- His ideas have been of practical use in
understanding and communicating with children, particularly in the field
of education (Discovery Learning).
Weaknesses
- Are the stages real? Vygotsky
and Bruner would
rather not talk about stages at all, preferring to see development as
continuous. Others have queried the age ranges of the stages. Some
studies have shown that progress to the formal operational stage is not
guaranteed. For example, Keating (1979) reported that 40-60% of college
students fail at formal operation tasks, and Dasen (1994) states that
only one-third of adults ever reach the formal operational stage.
- Because Piaget concentrated on the universal
stages of cognitive development and biological maturation, he failed to
consider the effect that the social setting and culture may have on
cognitive development (re: Vygotsky).
- Piaget’s methods (observation and clinical
interviews) are more open to biased interpretation than other methods,
i.e. subjective (Piaget observed alone).
- As several studies have shown Piaget
underestimated the abilities of children because his tests were
sometimes confusing or difficult to understand (e.g. Martin Hughes,
1975).
- The concept of schema is incompatible with the theories of Bruner and Vygotsky.
Behaviorism would also refute Piaget’s schema theory.
- Piaget carried out his studies with a handful of participants – in the early studies he generally used his own children (small / biased sample).
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
What is Psychosocial Development?
Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity.1 Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality.2 If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.
Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
- The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.2
- Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.
- If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
- The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.2
- Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
- Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.
- Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Arnold Gesell's Theory on Perspective on Learning and Development
Through 37
years as director of the Yale Clinic of Child Development (later renamed
Yale Child Study Center), Arnold Gesell pursued the task of observing
and recording the changes in child growth and development from infancy
through adolescence. Gesell is a maturationist; his
descriptions of developmental patterns in childhood emphasize physical
and mental growth that he saw as determined primarily by heredity. By
carefully observing children in his campus school, Gesell established
norms or typical behaviors of children throughout childhood. He
categorized these typical behaviors into 10 major areas that he called gradients of growth (Gesell & Ilg, 1949):
- Motor characteristics. These include bodily activity, eyes, and hands.
- Personal hygiene. These include eating, sleeping, elimination, bathing and dressing, health and somatic complaints, and tensional outlets.
- Emotional expression. These include affective attitudes, crying, assertion, and anger.
- Fears and dreams.
- Self and sex.
- Interpersonal relations. These include mother-child, child-child, and groupings in play.
- Play and pastimes. These include general interests, reading, music, radio, and cinema.
- School life. These include adjustment to school, classroom demeanor, reading, writing, and arithmetic.
- Ethical sense. These include blaming and alibiing; response to direction, punishment, praise; response to reason; sense of good and bad; and truth and property.
- Philosophic outlook. These include time, space, language and thought, war, death, and deity.
Head Start Program
What is Head Start?
Head Start is a comprehensive program for children from age three to five and their families. The goal of Head Start is to bring about a greater degree of social competence in young children, in particular those of lower-income families. Social competence is defined as a child's everyday effectiveness in dealing with both the present environment and later responsibilities.
Key principles of Head Start include:
Comprehensive services. To develop fully and achieve social competence, children and families need a comprehensive, interdisciplinary approach to services including education, health, nutrition, social services, and parent involvement. The range of services available must also be responsive and appropriate to each child and family's unique developmental, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic experiences.Head Start is family-centered and designed to foster a parents' role as the principal influence on their children's development and as their children's primary educators, nurturers, and advocates. Parents are encouraged to become involved in all aspects of Head Start, including direct involvement in policy and program decisions that respond to their interests and needs.
Community partnerships and community-based services
Head Start programs are community-based; with models of service based on the unique needs of the diverse communities they serve.
Head Start Helps all children succeed
Services are offered to meet the special needs of children with disabilities. Most children in Head Start are between the ages of three and five years old.
What can the Head Start Program offer to your Child?
Head Start provides children with activities that help them grow mentally, socially, emotionally, and physically. The Head Start staff recognize that, as parents, you are the first and most important teachers of your children. They will welcome your involvement in Head Start activities, and will work as partners with you to help your child progress.
Head Start staff members offer your child love, acceptance, understanding, and the opportunity to learn and experience success. Head Start children socialize with others, solve problems, and have other experiences which help them become self-confident. The children also improve their listening and speaking skills.
The children spend time in stimulating settings where they form good habits and enjoy playing with toys and working on tasks with classmates. Your child will leave Head Start more prepared for kindergarten, excited about learning, and ready to succeed.
Your Head Start child will also be examined by skilled professionals for any health problems. Professionals will arrange vision and hearing tests and any needed immunizations. Head Start offers a nutrition assessment and dental exams as well. Children with health needs receive follow-up care. Mental, Behavioral health and other services are available for children and families who wish to receive them.
What would be your child's routine in a Head Start program?
In our Head Start program, your child would attend a half-day center-based program. Some of our centers offer children bus rides to and from home. When the children arrive at the center, they are greeted warmly by their teachers. They put whatever they have brought from home in a place which is their own to use every day.
Classroom time includes many different activities. Some teachers begin the day by asking the children to sit in a circle. This encourages the children to talk about an idea or experience they want to share with others. Additionally, the children are encouraged to plan their activities. They may choose among art, playing with blocks or table toys, science activities, dancing to music, looking at books, or pretend housekeeping. Children can switch activities if they prefer another challenge.
Each day, they have time to work in a small group with other children and to play outdoors on safe playground equipment.
At lunchtime, children receive a nutritious meal and brush their teeth. All the children are taught to wash their hands before meals and after using the restroom, and are encouraged to develop good personal and health habits. If they come for an afternoon session, they also receive a healthy snack.
What can Head Start offer your family?
Head Start offers you a sense of belonging, other support services, and a chance to be involved in activities to help your whole family. You can take part in training classes on many subjects, such as child rearing, job training, learning about health and nutrition, and using free resources in your own community. Some parents learn the English language; others learn to read. Head Start also offers assistance to parents interested in obtaining a high school General Equivalency Diploma (GED) or other adult education opportunities.
If you have a family member with a special problem, such as drug or alcohol abuse, job loss, or other family crisis, your family can receive help through Head Start. Head Start staff members refer families needing help to medical, social, welfare, or employment specialists they know in the community, and will follow up to be sure you receive assistance.
You can become a Head Start volunteer and learn more about child development. This experience may later qualify you for training which can help you find employment in the child care field.
You can also have a voice in the Head Start program by serving on various committees. Parents' experiences in Head Start have raised their own self-confidence and improved their ability to make decisions.
Head Start is a comprehensive program for children from age three to five and their families. The goal of Head Start is to bring about a greater degree of social competence in young children, in particular those of lower-income families. Social competence is defined as a child's everyday effectiveness in dealing with both the present environment and later responsibilities.
Key principles of Head Start include:
Comprehensive services. To develop fully and achieve social competence, children and families need a comprehensive, interdisciplinary approach to services including education, health, nutrition, social services, and parent involvement. The range of services available must also be responsive and appropriate to each child and family's unique developmental, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic experiences.Head Start is family-centered and designed to foster a parents' role as the principal influence on their children's development and as their children's primary educators, nurturers, and advocates. Parents are encouraged to become involved in all aspects of Head Start, including direct involvement in policy and program decisions that respond to their interests and needs.
Community partnerships and community-based services
Head Start programs are community-based; with models of service based on the unique needs of the diverse communities they serve.
Head Start Helps all children succeed
Services are offered to meet the special needs of children with disabilities. Most children in Head Start are between the ages of three and five years old.
What can the Head Start Program offer to your Child?
Head Start provides children with activities that help them grow mentally, socially, emotionally, and physically. The Head Start staff recognize that, as parents, you are the first and most important teachers of your children. They will welcome your involvement in Head Start activities, and will work as partners with you to help your child progress.
Head Start staff members offer your child love, acceptance, understanding, and the opportunity to learn and experience success. Head Start children socialize with others, solve problems, and have other experiences which help them become self-confident. The children also improve their listening and speaking skills.
The children spend time in stimulating settings where they form good habits and enjoy playing with toys and working on tasks with classmates. Your child will leave Head Start more prepared for kindergarten, excited about learning, and ready to succeed.
Your Head Start child will also be examined by skilled professionals for any health problems. Professionals will arrange vision and hearing tests and any needed immunizations. Head Start offers a nutrition assessment and dental exams as well. Children with health needs receive follow-up care. Mental, Behavioral health and other services are available for children and families who wish to receive them.
What would be your child's routine in a Head Start program?
In our Head Start program, your child would attend a half-day center-based program. Some of our centers offer children bus rides to and from home. When the children arrive at the center, they are greeted warmly by their teachers. They put whatever they have brought from home in a place which is their own to use every day.
Classroom time includes many different activities. Some teachers begin the day by asking the children to sit in a circle. This encourages the children to talk about an idea or experience they want to share with others. Additionally, the children are encouraged to plan their activities. They may choose among art, playing with blocks or table toys, science activities, dancing to music, looking at books, or pretend housekeeping. Children can switch activities if they prefer another challenge.
Each day, they have time to work in a small group with other children and to play outdoors on safe playground equipment.
At lunchtime, children receive a nutritious meal and brush their teeth. All the children are taught to wash their hands before meals and after using the restroom, and are encouraged to develop good personal and health habits. If they come for an afternoon session, they also receive a healthy snack.
What can Head Start offer your family?
Head Start offers you a sense of belonging, other support services, and a chance to be involved in activities to help your whole family. You can take part in training classes on many subjects, such as child rearing, job training, learning about health and nutrition, and using free resources in your own community. Some parents learn the English language; others learn to read. Head Start also offers assistance to parents interested in obtaining a high school General Equivalency Diploma (GED) or other adult education opportunities.
If you have a family member with a special problem, such as drug or alcohol abuse, job loss, or other family crisis, your family can receive help through Head Start. Head Start staff members refer families needing help to medical, social, welfare, or employment specialists they know in the community, and will follow up to be sure you receive assistance.
You can become a Head Start volunteer and learn more about child development. This experience may later qualify you for training which can help you find employment in the child care field.
You can also have a voice in the Head Start program by serving on various committees. Parents' experiences in Head Start have raised their own self-confidence and improved their ability to make decisions.
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